Introduction

For many years global warming has been regarded as something insignificant towards how we live our lives and the sudden changes in climate. Critics argue that there is no correlation between the increases in the usage of fossil fuels and the sudden changes in climate and claim that the whole concept of global warming is a massive swindle designed to captivate people and create a level playing field for politicians such as Al gore and members of the conservative party.

Although Global Warming has become even harder to challenge, since it is the only theory to provide an explanation to strange weather patterns, increasing temperatures, the depletion in environment for animals such as polar bears due to the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers as well as the erratic migration of animals. As time goes on scientists are providing further compelling evidence to suggest that the warming of the planet is caused by the high levels of C0₂ released in the atmosphere from the constant burning of fossil fuels.

 In this report I shall focus on:

 What is global warming?

• How is it caused?
• What are the potential consequences that may arise from global warming?
• Why we should care?
• What are people’s views on global warming?  
• What can we do to prevent it?

The report provides a general idea of what global warming is and explores the different theories explaining this phenomenon. The report will also balance the data and statistics to see if global warming is the caused by humans from the burning of fossil fuels or whether the sudden changes in climate is one of natures phenomenona.  

I have chosen the topic of global warming since it is something that could potentially wipe out the whole planet if the temperatures continue to rise abnormally and sea levels carry on to increasing causing major flooding resulting in famine, huge masses of land to disappear, displacing thousands of people from there homes and the spread of deadly diseases, etc.  

The very thought of the entire planets future hanging the balance scares many people. Global warming being an extremely controversial subject causing a clear divide in public opinion attracts a lot of media attention which it makes it a desirable topic to study as well as an important issue to investigate.   

What is global warming?

“Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere, especially a sustained increase that is sufficient enough to cause climatic change.” [1]

What Causes Global warming?

Scientists have concluded that humans are contributing towards global warming by releasing large amounts of heat trapping gasses such as C0₂ in the atmosphere. Simple actions such driving, using electricity powered by coal power stations as well as using fossil fuels like oil and natural gas to heat our homes all release heat trapping gasses in the atmosphere.  

As the number of these gasses released into the atmosphere increases, less heat escapes back into space which increases the average surface temperature of the earth surface causing changes in climate for instance frequent storms, rise in sea levels causing flooding and severe droughts etc. The trapping of heat by a layer of gasses in the earths atmosphere is known as the greenhouse effect.

 What is the Greenhouse Effect?

 The greenhouse effect is the rise in surface temperature that the Earth experiences as a result of certain gases being released into the atmosphere (e.g. water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane,)  these gasses trap energy from the sun rays hence increasing the earths surface temperature. Without these gases, heat would escape back into space and the Earth’s average temperature would be far to low for any form of human life to function properly.

 Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have a similar effect to the glass panes in a greenhouse. Sunlight enters the Earth’s atmosphere, passing through the blanket of greenhouse gases. As it reaches the Earth’s surface it absorbs the sunlight’s energy. Once absorbed, this energy is sent back into the atmosphere. Some of the energy passes back into space, but much of it remains trapped in the atmosphere by the greenhouse gases, causing our world to heat up. The more heat trapping gasses the less energy is passed back into space causing the earth temperature to increase. [3]

 Is the Greenhouse Effect Important?

It is essential to have a greenhouse effect, without the greenhouse effect, the Earth wouldn’t be able to maintain surface temperatures high enough for humans to live. Although, too little or too many greenhouse gasses would disrupt the green house effecting causing disruption to the earths surface temperature making conditions for life on earth uninhabitable. Even an increase in the earth’s surface temperature by a 1 or 2 degrees could lead to noticeable changes. 

Greenhouse Gases

The following Gases are the most effective gasses at trapping the earth’s heat. These gases are known as greenhouse gasses; they occur naturally in the environment and are also a result of human activities. These gasses are:

       Water vapor

      Carbon dioxide

      Methane

      Nitrous oxide

 Water Vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from ocean, lakes & rivers.

 Carbon dioxide is the second most abundant greenhouse gas. It flows through the atmosphere through many processes such as:

  By burning of fossil fuels, solid wastes & wood products, to drive vehicles, generate electricity, deforestation (huge cutting of trees

  Volcanic eruptions

  The respiration of human being which inhales oxygen & exhales CO₂

 Methane is an effective insulator since it has the ability to trap 20 times more heat than the same amount of C0₂. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution , the amount of methane in the atmosphere  has more than doubled.

 The digestive processes of ruminant animals (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, deer), venting of natural gas and waste decomposition in landfills are some of the major sources of CH4 emissions.

Nitrous oxide is a powerful insulating gas which is primarily released from the burning of fossil fuels. Nitrous oxide has the ability to trap 300 more times heat than the same amount of C0_2. The concentration of nitrous has increased 17% over pre-industrial levels.

What is the difference between Climate and Weather?

 When reading about such a controversial topic, which requires a fair understanding of science, people can often get confused between one term and another. Most people often do not know the difference between weather and Climate which can sometimes affect their understanding, of such a topic. 

 Weather

The weather describes the current weather conditions ranging from a day to a week. Weather is what happens from minute to minute. The weather can change a lot within a very short amount of time. For example, it may rain and for an hour and then become sunny and clear.

Climate

 Climate describes the weather over a longer period of time such as years rather than days. Climate looks at the average weather conditions, regular weather patterns (i.e. winter, spring, summer, and autumn), as well as extreme weather conditions (i.e. tornadoes and floods). Our climate gives us an indication of the weather has been like for the last decade or so scientists also carefully study changes in climate to predict any future weather conditions we came across.

 Since the mid twentieth century as Global warming has been increasing at an alarming rate it has already managed to cause many changes in our environment that could jeopardise many people’s lives and homes. So far global warming has caused:

The Depletion of the Ozone Layer

 The Ozone layer is continually broken down and reformed as part of its natural cycle. Although this natural cycle has been disturbed by constant discharge of CFC’S (chlorofluorocarbons), these chlorine compounds released from aerosols, old refrigerators and foam insulation enter the atmosphere forming a set of complex chain reactions with in the atmosphere resulting in the thinning of the Ozone layer and many holes created.

 In addition these chlorine compounds are being released in large quantities resulting in Ozone being broken down faster than it can rebuild itself.

 Ozone Layer: A layer of bluish gas consisting of O3 in the stratosphere (at approximately 20 miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun. [9]

Effects

Even minor problems of ozone depletion can have major effects.  Every time even a small amount of the ozone layer is lost, more ultraviolet light from the sun can reach the Earth. Every time 1% of the ozone layer there is a 2% percent increase of harmful radiation in the atmohsphere meaning that the rate of depletion will become to fast for the rate of repair if we continue to release these CFC’S. [11]

 This is quite harmful for humans since it will increase the risk of cancer by 3-5% and other temporary disorders such as snow blindness as well as more permanent disorders for example cataracts. This could also potentially change the rate of evolution for certain aquatic species since it will change marine environments by reducing the number of microscopic organisms such as plankton and other photosynthesising organisms. In addition the food chain with in the sea could die out without these vital organisms.

Excessive Flooding

 In places where there are ice glaciers on higher altitudes and they are all melting rapidly, it will lead to a sudden increase in water input to rivers, causing floods all along the river. This excess water could also lead to the formation of new lakes which will keep on increasing in size. This is a serious cause of worry, since the water contained in these lakes could be tremendous, and the bursting of such lakes could cause a major catastrophe all around, destroying everything in its path.

Earth Will Get Re-contaminated

Many today would never have heard of DDT and many such pesticides that were banned worldwide years ago. Most of the pesticides got airborne and were finally deposited in cool areas containing glaciers. Up to a few years ago, these harmful chemicals remained trapped in the layers of glaciers. Rapid melting of these glaciers is now releasing these chemicals back into the environment, in many lakes and rivers formed by these melting glaciers.        

Reduced Agricultural Output

Agriculture that depends solely on rain will be mostly unaffected by the effects of ice glaciers melting. Such areas are very few worldwide and do not contribute to the major chunk of farmland. Areas affected will be those that depend on water emanating from ice glaciers. During the dry seasons there will be a shortage of fresh water from ice glaciers, making the land dry and unsuitable for agriculture. Total agricultural output will reduce, leading to a shortage of food grains.

“I don’t think we fully understand the full extent of these impacts, but I’m convinced they’re happening,” said Tony Prato, an ecological economist at the University of Missouri. “People will adapt if they can, but it will be painful, and sometimes it will cost lives.”

Unstable weather conditions: Many scientists have noticed a significant increase in strange weather patterns due to the sudden changes in climate as the average surface temperature of the earth increases. These weather conditions become unstable since the climate is changing quicker than the earth can handle resulting in more storm like weather and natural disasters such as extreme flooding, warming winds, rising tides, hurricanes and severe drought.

Scientists’ Predictions

Over the years Scientists have made many explanations based on scientific evidence to back up their theory on Global warming. Although scientists have to created a number of predictions based on scientific studies taken out in a number of different locations and weather conditions as well as looking at statistics.

	The number of Category 4 and 5 hurricanes has almost doubled in the last 30 years.
	Malaria has spread to higher altitudes in places like the Colombian Andes, 7,000 feet above sea level.
	The flow of ice from glaciers in Greenland has more than doubled over the past decade.
	At least 279 species of plants and animals are already responding to global warming, moving closer to the poles.
http://www.climatecrisis.net/thescience/

If the warming continues, we can expect catastrophic consequences.

	Deaths from global warming will double in just 25 years — to 300,000 people a year.
	Global sea levels could rise by more than 20 feet with the loss of shelf ice in Greenland and Antarctica, devastating coastal areas worldwide.
	Heat waves will be more frequent and more intense.
	Droughts and wildfires will occur more often.
	The Arctic Ocean could be ice free in summer by 2050.
	More than a million species worldwide could be driven to extinction by 2050.
http://www.climatecrisis.net/thescience/

 In this section I shall write some of peoples of views and global warming.

•  “In a fragile Biosphere the ultimate fate of humanity may depend on whether we can cultivate a deeper sense of self-restraint, founded on a widespread ethic of limiting consumption and finding non-material enrichment”. – Alan Durning -World Watch Institute”. [17]
• Nature has given enough for every body’s need but not for everybody’s greed.-M. Gandhi[18]
• “We must make the rescue of the environment the central organizing principle for civilization.”-  Al Gore[19]
• Mikhail Gorbachev says “Action now for peace, global justice and a sustainable future”. [20]
• “Our nation has both an obligation and self-interest in facing head-on the serious environmental, economic and national security threat posed by global warming”.
  John McCain – Environmental – Economy – Action[21]
• “All across the world, in every kind of environment and region known to man, increasingly dangerous weather patterns and devastating storms are abruptly putting an end to the long-running debate over whether or not climate change is real. Not only is it real, it’s here, and its effects are giving rise to a frighteningly new global phenomenon: the man-made natural disaster”. Barrack Obama[22]
• “We simply must do everything we can in our power to slow down global warming before it is too late. The science is clear. The global warming debate is over”.
  Arnold Schwarzenegger[23]

Over time scientists have compiled many theories to explain the causes of global warming whether it is man made or natural. However, there are 2 key theories:

 Arguments for: Global Warming is Man Made

 Which countries are emitting the most Greenhouse Gases?

 The more developed a country is the more green house gasses it tends to produce. The reason for this is that these countries rely on more high-tech technologies and need the most abundant materials such as oil and coal to power these new technologies there country relies on. The diagram below shows the amount of Carbon produced by other countries in an entire year.

Figure 1

 [1]  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carbon_Emission_by_Region.png

This graph shows the increasing Amount of CO2 emissions produced by big countries and continents around the world. The graph shows that a significant amount of CO₂ emissions are released from the USA and Asia. The graph clearly indicates that a large amount of carbon in the atmosphere is produced by human emissions which are enough carbon to cause significant temperature changes to the earth’s surface temperature.

Figure 2

This graph reaffirms the previous graph since it shows a very sharp increase in temperature in the year 1998 which is around the same time humans produced a lot of fossil fuels. Although many scientists argue that the temperature fluctuates well before the 1600 where the industrial revolution hadn’t even began.

Arguments for: Global Warming is Natural?

The idea of global warming being man made is pretty far fetched to many scientists since; climate graphs show the earth’s surface temperature has been increasing and decreasing for unknown reasons for thousands of years.

 Figure 3

The graph shows the relationship between the levels of CO₂ and temperature in degrees centigrade thousands over years before present. Scientists also plotted a baseline to compare the levels of CO₂ emissions and temperature to compare to a period between the 1960’s and 1980’s.

The graph indicates the thousands of years ago the levels of CO₂ where similar to those of the 1960-1990’s despite having human fossil fuel emissions many years ago. In addition at 4 instances in the graph the temperature exceeds the temperature of the period between the 1960’s and 1980’s this slightly distorts the relation between lags between the temperature degrees centigrade and the level of CO_2. This not only shows that temperatures have fluctuated along with levels of CO₂ but suggests that there could be another cause for increase in temperature and that the increase in temperature does not completely transpire to high levels of CO₂.

Figure 4

This graph on the left shows amount of different types of fossil fuels used to produce high levels of carbon each year although the graph on the left shows increasing trends in temperature between the 1920’s and 1940’s the graph also highlights decreasing intermediate trends of temperature increase from the 1980’s onwards.

Figure 5  

This graph illustrates the relationship between the levels of CO₂ concentration in relation to temperature variation. In theory the higher the concentration of CO₂ the higher temperature although the graph indicates CO₂ lags behind temperature throughout the graph which disapproves this theory. In addition CO₂ levels have been naturally varying without human fossil fuel emissions which show that the increasing surface temperatures are not necessarily completely down to the use of fossil fuels.

 Figure 6  

Graphic from 1990 report by International Panel on Climate Change

The Graph shows the fluctuation in temperature around the medieval period where the earth’s temperatures exceeded radically and the little ice age between 1500 and 1900 Ad. This graph challenges the theory of man made global warming since they were significant temperatures despite there being not being many human fossil fuel emissions compared to today. The graph also outlines the radical fluctuations in temperature as we can see between 1000 AD to 1400 AD there was the medieval warm period where global surface temperatures increased beyond the norm although not long later the earth experienced an ice age between 1500AD to 1700 AD this is when the earth temperature had radically dropped.

Conclusion

• The question that still lingers in many minds is whether Global warming is exclusively down to humans activities or is it a natural process being sped up by our greenhouse gas emissions.
• Environmentalists have been looking at the use of our fossil fuels and the amount we waste over the last 30 years.
• Figure 2 suggests since the use of fossil fuels there has been a sharp increase in global surface temperatures.
• Although many experts have now revealed that the earth’s surface temperature has increased and decreased over the thousands of years for unknown reasons. This theory is represented in figures 3 and 5 where temperatures and levels carbon have fluctuated thousands of years ago long before the industrial revolution and humans burning fossil fuels.
• In addition we are yet to figure a mechanism that causes these increases and decreases in temperature over the years leading many of us to believe this is one of nature’s phenomena.
• Furthermore figure 3 and 5 show lags between the level of C02 and surface temperature which reaffirms that C02 may not be the only contributing factor to warming of the earth.
• Therefore I conclude that global warming is not solely down to human activities but is a natural process that is potentially being sped up by our ignorant wasteful activities.
• Although I remain firm in saying that human fossil fuel emissions are not the root cause of global warming and that there is a natural process contributing to this increase in the earth’s surface temperature.
• Moreover figures 3,5 and 6 shows fluctuations in temperatures and CO2 since thousands of years ago which shows that global warming has happened in the past naturally without human fossil fuels.
• Therefore until we can fully understand the mechanism responsible for global warming and see why the temperatures may have fluctuated in the past we can not say its man made leading me to conclude that global warming is man made.

Appendix

1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Global Warming-climate – http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/climate/html
2. The live Earth Global Warming Survival handbook 77 essential skills to stop climate change or live through it written by David De Rothschild)
3. The Live Earth Global Warming Survival Handbook 77 essential Skills to stop climate change – or live through it By David De Rothschild
4. MANIFESTO FOR THE EARTH BY Mikhail Gorbachev
5. Alternative Energy a beginner’s guide to the future of energy technology by Marek Waslisiewicz
6. HEAT How To Stop The Planet Burning by George Monbiot
7. Field Notes From A Catastrophe by Elizabeth Colbert
8. DVD film An inconvenient Truth A global warning starring Al-gore
9. An inconvenient Truth written by Al-gore
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Kyoto_Protocol_participation_map_2005.png
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Kyoto_Protocol_participation_map_2005.png
12. http://www.climatecrisis.net/thescience/
13. kotamiyazono.com/storage/ppt/globalwarming.ppt
14. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/the-effects-of-melting-ice-glaciers.html
15. http://www.worldviewofglobalwarming.org/pages/glaciers.html
16. http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-82205/The-two-satellite-images-show-the-minimum-extent-of-Arctic
17. http://www.ecocentre.org.uk/global-warming.html
18. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/climateweather.html
19. http://www.combatclimatechange.ie/uploadedfiles/Climate_Change_Facts/greenhouse%20effect%20from%20safeclimate%20site.jpg
20. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/global%20warming
21. www.hillsdale.edu Paper Global Warming Man-Made or Natural?- Professor S. Fred Singer, Professor Emeritus of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia
     

  

HUMAN CLONING right or wrong?

Never since Galileo’s put forward his model of a world, where planets rotate around the sun, has there been such controversy around a scientific issue, as that surrounding Human Cloning. Despite the UN’s decision on Human Cloning on 8/3/2005, asking countries “to adopt all measures necessary to prohibit all forms of human cloning in as much as they are incompatible with human dignity and the protection of human life” , the world remains in disagreement about this issue. This report attempts to examine the various aspects in relation to the technical and ethical issues relation to human cloning.

Introduction
For over many years, the cloning of living beings has been only an aspect of science fiction. Despite the constant display of cloning within the media in movies, magazines and books which are based on the creation of humans from cloning, their scientific credibility has been dismissed by the general public. The creation of life through cloning was often seen as a mere fantasy that scientists were trying to achieve.

Now scientists have cloned animals, they are even closer to discovering how create human life through cloning something that was once considered a complete and utter myth. Although scientists have not perfected the cloning of many animals for instance dolly the sheep who died at and early age from of lung cancer and other complications. This raises a number of ethical issues leaving many unanswered questions such as Is human cloning ethically right?, Should it be allowed?, What are the possible benefits and consequences that may arise from Human cloning?, How would these new clones be accepted in society and Are scientists trying to play the role of God by interfering with nature?

In this case study I shall touch upon what is cloning?, Why it matters?, What are peoples views on cloning?, How are these people influenced and what they are influenced by? The purpose of this case study is to present the facts, recent statistics and current views on human cloning. The case study shall challenge the ethics behind human cloning and present a balanced argument stating the possible consequences and benefits that may arise from human cloning. Ultimately I shall come to a conclusion on whether human cloning is ethically right by carefully balancing the scientific data provided and closely assessing socio-economic factors which could be affected.

The subject of human cloning has been chosen for this case study because it is regarded as highly controversial, it is an appealing and a captivating issue that is widely debated by many governmental and religious groups. In addition the advances in the growing industry of science and technology have led us to discuss the potential powers that human cloning may in bring in the future such as cures to diseases like cancer and heart disease.

Scientific Theory

 Cloning is the process of genetically creating an identical copy of an organism. When we think of the word cloning, it tends to make us think of extremely mad scientists, with yellow teeth and the urge to do the unthinkable. Although cloning may have many advantages in store such as curing diseases, there also different types of cloning I will be speaking about this soon. There are three main types of cloning:-  

1.  Reproductive Cloning

Technology used to generate an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another currently or previously existing animal. Dolly was created by reproductive cloning technology. In a process called “somatic cell nuclear transfer” (SCNT), scientists transfer genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell to an egg whose nucleus, and thus its genetic material, has been removed. The reconstructed egg containing the DNA from a donor cell must be treated with chemicals or electric current in order to stimulate cell division. Once the cloned embryo reaches a suitable stage, it is transferred to the uterus of a female host where it continues to develop until birth.

2.  Therapeutic Cloning

Also called “embryo cloning,” is the production of human embryos for use in research. The goal of this process is not to create cloned human beings, but rather to harvest stem cells that can be used to study human development and to treat disease. Stem cells are important to biomedical researchers because they can be used to generate virtually any type of specialized cell in the human body. Stem cells are extracted from the egg after it has divided for 5 days. The egg at this stage of development is called a blastocyst. The extraction process destroys the embryo, which raises a variety of ethical concerns. Many researchers hope that one day stem cells can be used to serve as replacement cells to treat heart disease, Alzheimer’s, cancer, and other diseases.

 3. DNA Cloning

DNA to be cloned is cut into fragments by the restriction enzymes. Such enzymes occur naturally in some bacteria, where they stop viral reproduction by cutting up viral DNA. They restrict the growth of viruses and hence the name. The fragment of DNA is inserted into a vector by DNA ligase, which is another bacterial enzyme that seals any breaks in a DNA molecule.

The most common vector is plasmid, which is a small ring of DNA removed from bacteria. Gene splicing is complete when a recombinant DNA (DNA containing fragments from two or more different sources) has been prepared. After the recombined plasmid is taken up by a host cell, cloning is achieved when the host cell and the recombinant DNA of the plasmid reproduce either the cloned gene or a protein product (produced by the gene).

How does human cloning work

One common method scientists may use to clone humans is, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), this method was used to clone the famous Dolly the sheep. SCNT begins when doctors take the egg from a donor and remove the nucleus of the egg, creating an enucleated egg. A cell, which contains DNA, is then taken from the person who is being cloned. The enucleated egg is then fused together with the cloning subject’s cell using electricity. This creates an embryo, which is implanted into a surrogate mother through in vitro fertilization (IVF). If the procedure is successful, then the surrogate mother will give birth to a baby that is a clone of the cloning subject at the end of a normal development period. The success rate is only about one or two out of 100 embryos. This is why it took 277 attempts to create Dolly.

Dolly the Sheep

Dolly the sheep was famous for being the first ever mammal cloned from an adult cell; previous clones have been from embryo cells. She was first created in the year 1996 July 5th more than a decade ago. Dolly was cloned by a team from the Roslin institute in Scotland. The team was lead by Professor Ian Wilmut who intended to take on this mighty challenge. This has been regarded as one of the biggest scientific breakthroughs in history. Dr Ian Wilmit embryologist said “It will enable us to study genetic diseases for which there is presently no cure”.

Although this breakthrough has also raised moral dilemmas and along with fears that this technique could be used to clone humans. Dr Ian Wilmut made a bold statement by describing Human cloning as “repugnant and Illegal”. Unfortunately, in 2003 Dolly was so ill dolly she had to be put down after a veterinary exam showed progressive lung disease and a number of other complications. Dolly’s body has been preserved in the national museum of Scotland.

This cloning technique also proved to be extremely inefficient as it took “277” eggs in an attempt to clone dolly the sheep. This also raises another question whether it would be ethical to sacrifice that many human embryos just for one life. Who are we to decide who shall die and who lives? but isn’t everyone entitled to a second chance? And how many human embryos will have to be sacrificed if we want to clone one?

How was Dolly the Sheep Cloned?

The following diagram shows the process that was used to clone Dolly the sheep. It is also one of the techniques used for cloning animals.

• First, a cell (the donor cell) was selected from the udder cells of a Finn Dorset sheep to provide the genetic information for the clone. For this experiment, the researchers allowed the cell to divide and form a culture in vitro, or outside of an animal. This produced multiple copies of the same nucleus. This step only becomes useful when the DNA is altered, such as in the case of Dolly, because then the changes can be studied to make sure that they have taken effect.
• The donor cell is grown in a Petri/culture dish.
• A donor cell was taken from the culture and then starved in a mixture which had only enough nutrients to keep the cell alive.
• This culture dish barely has enough nutrients to keep the cell alive.
• This caused the cell to begin shutting down all active genes and enter the G0 stage. The egg cell of a Blackface ewe was then enucleated and placed next to the donor cell. One to eight hours after the removal of the egg cell, an electric pulse was used to fuse the two cells together and, at the same time, activate the development of an embryo.
• The enucleated egg cell and the mammary cell are fusing together.
•  This technique for replicates the activation provided by sperm is not completely correct, since only a few electrically activated cells survive long enough to produce an embryo.
•  If the embryo survives, it is allowed to grow for about six days, incubating in a sheep’s oviduct. It has been found that cells placed in oviducts early in their development are much more likely to survive than those incubated in the lab.
• Finally, the embryo is placed into the uterus of a surrogate mother ewe. That ewe then carries the clone until it is ready to give birth. Assuming nothing goes wrong, an exact copy of the donor animal is born.
• This newborn sheep has all of the same characteristics of a normal newborn sheep.

Cloning Ethics

The Ethics of Cloning[1] by Leon R. Kass, the noted teacher, scientist, and humanist, and James Q. Wilson, the preeminent political scientist to whom four U.S. presidents have turned for advice on crises in American life. And Timmons, Mark (2005). Disputed Moral Issues[2]. New York: Oxford University Press (ISBN: 9780195177633), are the guiding tools towards developing an understating of this matter.

The key objectives to Human Cloning are:-

• That human cloning constitutes unethical experimentation.
• That human cloning threatens identity and individuality.
• That human cloning turns procreation into manufacture.
• That human cloning means dictatorship over children and the perversion of parenthood.

The Revulsion of Cloning

“Most people are repelled by nearly all aspects of human cloning.” 

• Mass production of human beings;
• The idea of mother-daughter or father-son “twins”;
• The idea of a woman bearing and rearing a genetic copy of herself, her spouse, or a deceased loved one;
• The idea of conceiving a child as an exact “replacement” for another who has died;
• The successful creation of duplicates of oneself for “spare parts”;
• The idea of humans “playing God”…
• Revulsion is not an argument… but it may reflect an intuition that something has been violated.
• “We sense that cloning represents a profound defilement of our given nature as procreative beings, and of the social relations built on this natural ground.”

The Great Debate

The following discussion will be a series of arguments against and for cloning. The first discussion will look at it in an ethical aspect whereas the second discussion will look at the scientific aspects.

 Ethical Debate

 Arguments Against:

1. Human Cloning Constitutes Unethical Experimentation

• Cloning could easily be used to reproduce living or deceased persons without their consent.
• The success rate of cloning (at least at first) will probably not be very high.
• Fewer than two to three percent of all animal cloning attempts have succeeded.
• Before Dolly was created, Scottish scientists transferred 277 adult nuclei into sheep eggs and implanted 29 clonal embryos. Dolly was the only living result.
• Many of the so-called “successes” have included major disabilities and deformities.
• There is good reason to think the same sort of success rate would be found in attempts at human cloning.
• “We cannot ethically even get to know whether or not human cloning is feasible.” (332)

1. 2.     Human Cloning Threatens Identity and Individuality

• Even if human cloning were successful, the clone may experience concerns about his distinctive identity:
• The person to whom he is identical will be his “father” or “mother”.
• Virtually no one will be able to treat his clone as he would a traditional child. Inequality in standards of communication amongst clones. This will cause major inequality with in society.
•  “What will happen when the adolescent clone of Mommy becomes the spitting image of the woman with whom Daddy once fell in love?”
• The life of the clone will constantly be scrutinized in relation to that of the older version.
• The matter will only be worse for the clone of somebody famous.
• The diversity of life immensely decreases
• Confusion; people would not be able to tell their friends apart from another clone.
•  

1. 3.     Human Cloning Turns Procreation into Manufacture

• Human cloning would represent a giant step toward turning procreation into manufacture.
• Steps have already been made in this direction with in vitro fertilization and genetic testing of embryos.
• Children would become simply another kind of man-made thing, with prospective “parents” adopting a technocratic attitude towards their children.
• “The problem is that any child whose being, character, and capacities exist owing to human design does not stand on the same plane with its makers.”
• The effect is the dehumanization of children and the lack of variation in human life.
• Eugenics: Human cloning would most certainly lead to eugenics. Eugenics is the attempt to improve human beings not by improving there social, financial or educational opportunities Eugenics is more about improving a persons physical features eg having blue eyes, blond hair and being tall. Scientists can do this modifying certain traits.
•  

1. 4.     Human Cloning leads to dictatorship over Children and distortion of Parenthood

• Normally, in producing children, we embrace the novelty of the child, and accept the limits of our control.
• Reproduction by human cloning will create a “profound misunderstanding” of the parent-child relationship.
• Children are not our property or possessions.
• Children are supposed to live their own lives, not ours.
• Whereas most parents have hopes for their children, cloning parents will have expectations.
• “Cloning “seeks to makes one’s children after one’s own image (or an image of one’s choosing) and their future according to one’s will.”
• Children will hold their cloners fully responsible for their nature and their nurture.

Arguments For:

1. Human Cloning could save many lifes

• Cloning could easily be used to reproduce living or deceased persons this could end the pain and suffering.
• The success rate of cloning (at least at first) will probably not be very high.

1. 2.     The Quality of Humans could be improved

• Super humans could be created and drafted into the military and police offering better protection to society 
• People could become more intelligent and offer more to society this will also reduce crime and help us advance our living a lot more 
• This could also enhance evolution since humans would have all the necessary characteristics to adapt to changes in the environment over time
• People can live longer and are generally happier

The Scientific Debate

Arguments For:

To develop new organs for transplantation in humans. This could decrease the time a patient waits for a transplant

• To obtain human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) for Regenerative Medicine
• To generate an identical twin of an existing or previously existing individual
• To engineer the clone of an individual with a genetic disorder such that the clone would be identical except for the “repaired” gene
• ES cells could be derived from donated, or “abandoned” or “orphaned” embryos

For transplantation of immunologically identical tissue

 Conclusion

I have thought about this for an extremely long time and I have come to the decision that cloning should not be allowed. As I feel that as science and technology grows at an alarming rate we are starting to loose the morals and ethical thoughts that keep our society in place. Instead of focusing too much on breaking the boundaries of science we should stop and think about the possible consequences that may arise. Although I feel cloning shouldn’t be allowed all together as we are interfering with nature. Without a shadow of doubt, I believe that some scientists are trying to play the role of god after all who are we to decide who lives and dies? Despite the rights that everyone is entitled to for example have a chance to give birth or become smarter. Although it would be unfair for us to intervene, it’s up to those people to find alternatives and feel happy and secure with themselves.

In addition I feel cloning is the short cut to curing people’s insecurities or hardship’s. I also predict that cloning may bring huge medical advances but these will only be bought out by big commercial and military companies sidelining those infertile couples, cancer patients and people who aren’t high up in the social class ladder. This means actual stakeholders (people who are the target or people who are affected) for cloning will be at loss since the technology supposedly designed for them will leave them out, only to be given to those who are more privileged. This will create major inequality and may cause wars and riots as a result.

Furthermore I think human cloning is a by product of greed and ignorance from other scientists. Enhancing evolution would be extremely unfair towards other species cloning could prepare most of us for any change in the environment by equipping us with the appropriate characteristics, this will make it virtually impossible for the human race to become extinct which could lead to immortality. I also strongly believe scientists have leaped over the line along time ago and should put and end to this before anymore people are affected.

References

• Is Human Reproductive Cloning Inevitable: Future Options for UN Governance
• United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS), 6F International Organizations Center, Pacifi co-Yokohama, 1-1-1 Minato Mirai, Nishi-ku, Yokohama 220-8502, Japan, Email: unuias@ias.unu.edu Website: www.ias.unu.edu
• Human Cloning, CRS Report for Congress – February 25, 2002, Judith A. Johnson, Specialist in Life Sciences
• Domestic Social Policy Division
  http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/permalink/meta-crs-3263:1
• Human Cloning : “A bridge too far” , A Presentation by the Hon Tony Abbott MP www.adelaide.catholic.org.au/sites/OfficeforFamilyandlife/media/files/995.ppt
• United States. Department of Energy. Office of Science. “Cloning Fact Sheet.” 29 Aug. 2006. Human Genome Project Information. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml
• Cloning: A Beginner’s Guide Aaron D. Levine is an Assistant Professor in the School of Public Policy at Georgia Tech. His research focuses on the interface between bioethics and public policy. Specifically, he studies the impact of ethical controversy on scientific research, with a particular emphasis on emerging biomedical technologies. His recent work has focused on stem cell policy and includes several assessments of the impact of the unusual regulatory environment on the international development of human embryonic stem cell science.
  http://www.cloningbg.com/index.html
• http://www.cloninginformation.org/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_cloning
• http://www.open2.net/nextbigthing/cloning/cloning_in_depth/in_depth.htm
• http://www.morrowgalpern.ca/snc1d/snc1d_chba.doc
• www.bioethics.gov/reports/cloningreport/background.html
•  http://www.pollingreport.com/science.htm

 Obesity: Environental or Genetic?

Obesity Environmental Vs Genetic

Introduction

Obesity is now one of the fastest growing epidemics of the 21st century. “Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health. A crude population measure of obesity is the body mass index (BMI), a person’s weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of his or her height (in metres). A person with a BMI of 30 or more is generally considered obese”.

This report aims to provide a good understanding of obesity this includes:
• Illnesses and Medical Complications associated with obesity
• The Symptoms of Obesity Long and short term
• The Causes of Obesity
• The Diagnosis of obesity an explanation of BMI

The report also aims to answer the widely debated subject is obesity environmental or genetic? It is essential to identify the root cause of obesity between these two main factors genetics and the environment in order to be able tackle this growing epidemic. In order to that this the report has used some of the latest scientific articles from some of the most reputable institutions such as the MRC (Medical Research Council).

In addition the author of this report conducted a number of interviews with the Oxford Health Alliance (OxHA) which specialises in tackling chronic diseases especially obesity.

Scientific Theory
Obesity is now becoming one of the biggest health problems for the developed world. Obesity causes more than 9,000 deaths in the UK alone.

Over the last 25 years obesity in Adults has increased by four times as much as it used to be, resulting in two thirds of the UK being classed as overweight or Obese. Of these people are 22% men and 23% women.

According to figures from the National Audit Office, being obese can reduce your life expectancy by nine years. It also makes you far more likely to develop a range of chronic diseases and health-related problems, including:

• Diabetes • Heart Disease • Stroke
• Cancer • Osteoarthritis • High blood pressure
• Gallstones • Infertility • Depression

There are also a number of other medical complications that may arise from being obese.

Childhood Obesity

 One common misconception is that obesity only occurs in adults when in reality there are a high number of children that have been diagnosed as Obese. In the last 20 years the number of obese children has tripled.

At Least 10% of six year olds and 17% of 15 year olds are now clinically Obese. Child obesity is often dismissed as puppy fat although many parents and carers fail to realise that the child runs a high risk of becoming obese resulting in serious health effects later in life.

Symptoms of Obesity

Becoming slightly overweight doesn’t cause much of an impact to your health although being overweight/Obese for a prolonged period of time can cause some serious health effects such as heart disease and high blood pressure.

The immediate Symptoms of Obesity include:

• Breathlessness • Sleep Apnoea (snoring)
• Difficulty Sleeping • Inability to cope with sudden physical activity
• Frequent tiredness • Back and Joint pains

In addition to the short term problems and the immediate symptoms to obesity, many people also suffer a number of psychological problems such as:

• Low level of Confidence • Low self-esteem (Self Worth), poor self image
• Feeling isolated in Society • Reduced Mobility resulting in poor quality of life

In the long term, obesity greatly increases your risk of:
• high blood pressure,
• heart disease and stroke,
• high cholesterol levels (fatty deposits blocking up your arteries)
• breast cancer
• gall bladder disease
• gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (when stomach acid flows up into the gullet)
• arthritis of the back, hips, knees and ankles,
• Diabetes
• Reduced life expectancy.

A.D.A.M., Inc. is accredited by URAC, also known as the American Accreditation HealthCare Commission (www.urac.org). URAC’s accreditation program is the first of its kind, requiring compliance with 53 standards of quality and accountability, verified by independent audit. A.D.A.M. is among the first to achieve this important distinction for online health information and services. Learn more about A.D.A.M.’s editorial process. A.D.A.M. is also a founding member of Hi-Ethics (www.hiethics.com) and subscribes to the principles of the Health on the Net Foundation (www.hon.ch).

The Causes of Obesity

There are a number of factors that contribute to the cause of obesity. The factors are:

Genetic Factors: A report on the Genetics of childhood obesity carried out by the department of genetics in the University of Cleveland has revealed that a variety of single gene defects can produce severe early onset obesity without associated neurodevelopment abnormalities or birth defects.

Environmental Factors: A healthy environment is essential for society to be able to be fit and healthy. There are many environmental factors that influence the rise in obesity such as:
• Transport- the way in which people travel
• Access to sports centres as well as open spaces to play and exercise
• Healthy Restaurants the access to healthy alternatives instead of being surrounded by Fast Food Restaurants selling food high in fat and salt
• Entertainment- these days people sit on the computer playing games or watching movies instead of walking to the cinema and playing in the park

Neurological and Physiological Factors: Many Obese people suffer from either psychological or physiological people. Neurological problems could be:
• Comfort eating
• Addiction to certain foods and beverages
• Weak self perception thoughts of being underweight or skinny

Physiological Problems could be:
• Low metabolic rate resulting in you putting on weight more easily
• Disabled- this person is not very mobile & will find it very hard to loose weight through exercise
• Heart problems this person is not aloud to exert themselves and it will be dangerous to do any cardio exercises

Cultural and Socio-economic Factors:
When identifying the causes of obesity it is essential to discuss the cultural and social economic influences in a person’s environment. There are many cultural and social economic influences such as:
• Bad eating habits
• Traditional food are high in fat and salt
• Poorer family’s can only afford packaged food which is generally high in fat, salt & sugar
• Fast food restaurants are seen as more fashionable and affordable

Biochemical: Certain chemical reactions in the body can influence obesity.
According to the European journal of obesity there are certain enzymes that can influence our appetite which dominates the amount we eat. The recent study discovers the enzyme GOAT (gherilin O-acetyltransferase) which is secreted in stomach acid although scientists still say they have a long way to fully understand the effects of this enzyme.

Diagnosis of Obesity
Creating a general diagnosis for obesity can be extremely difficult since each individual is different in terms of height, weight and body mass.

Although there is now a method of measuring obesity by using height and weight to calculate a persons Body Mass Index (BMI), this method is currently the most accurate and reliable way of measuring obesity. The calculation of BMI is being used by doctors and scientists all over the world to measure obesity.

To work out your own BMI you must use the following the calculation:
1. measure your height in metres and multiply the number by itself – this is the squared figure
2. Measure your weight in kilograms,
3. Divide your weight by the answer you got in step 1 (squared height),
4. The number you are left with is your BMI.

Here is an example:
1. 1.65 metres tall (165cm – 65 inches), your squared figure is 2.72
2. 58kg in weight
3. 58kg divided by 2.72
4. 21.3 BMI figure.

 For the majority and Ideal weight is a BMI of 20-25.  

The Diagram shows that BMI is not always the best measure of obesity. The Bodybuilder (left) and the Obese man (right) both have the same body mass index. Although the body builder has a very little percentage of fat and a larger muscle mass where as the obese man has a very high percentage of fat and is the unhealthy individual.

What are the Possible Treatments for Obesity
The most effective way to loose weight is to reduce your calorie intake and exercise more frequently. Any treatment for obesity aims to loose weight and improve ones quality of life both psychologically and physiologically.

There are four main options in the battle against obesity. These options are:
• You can do nothing and remain Obese
• Have a healthy diet and exercise regularly
• You can take different types of Drugs to help with weight lose
• You can pay for a Surgery

Diet

Maintaining a healthy diet is an essential step to losing weight as well as keeping healthy. When it comes to diet the secret is having a balanced diet which means having the correct proportions of everything even those fatty foods are essential for the body.

Below is a diagram of what a balanced diet should look like.

Figure details the constituents of a Balanced HEALTH Diet

Exercise
Exercise is important to be able to loose weight. Exercise helps you burn calories which is one of the crucial steps in loosing weight.

You should at least do about 30 minutes of exercise a day. It is usually best if you do that exercise with in a sport you enjoy whether it is dancing, swimming, playing football or even jogging, this will help you remain more consistent and exercise more muscle groups.

Drugs
There are a variety of medications available for weight loss. Although these medications are only available in extreme cases and given to you by your GP. You also need to show that you can loose weight on a calorie controlled diet before medication can even be considered.

The part of the brain responsible for controlling feelings like hunger is called the Hypothalamus. It is responsible for controlling the hormones and chemical signals circulating in our blood that influence appetite.
Traditional weight-loss drugs contain amphetamine, which is a stimulant that increases the activity of certain chemicals in the brain. Stimulants increase the amount of noradrenalin and dopamine hormones in your blood, which stops you feeling as hungry. However, they are not suitable for long-term use and can have serious side effects, including high blood pressure, anxiety and restlessness.

Surgery

People with a BMI of 40 or more are described as morbidly obese. At this stage, the problem can be very hard to treat. Surgery may be considered to restrict the amount of food eaten, or to interrupt the digestive process.
Surgery may also be an option for people with a BMI of 35 to 40, who have life-threatening cardiopulmonary problems – for example, severe sleep apnea (a sleep disorder where a person experiences irregular breathing at night), obesity-related heart disease, or diabetes.
Surgery is often seen as a last resort and should only be carried out after having tried and tested all methods. There are a number of surgical procedures such as:
• Gastric Banding
• Gastric Bypass
Gastric Banding

Advantages
Lowest mortality and complication rate
Least invasive surgical approach
No stapling, cutting, or intestinal re-routing
Adjustable
Reversible
Low malnutrition risk

Disadvantages
Slower initial weight loss than Gastric Bypass
Regular follow-up critical for optimal results
Requires implanted medical device

The figure above shows a gastric Banding system (Surgical Procedure) Courtesy Northwest Weight loss Surgery

Gastric Bypass

Advantages
Rapid initial weight loss
Laparoscopic approach is possible
Longer experience in USA

Disadvantages
Stomach Division, stapling and intestinal re-routing required
More operative complications than LAP-BAND
Portion of digestive tract is bypassed, resulting in nutritional deficiencies
“Dumping syndrome” can occur
Non-adjustable
Extremely difficult to reverse
The figure above shows a Gastric Bypass System (Surgical Procedure) Courtesy Northwest Weight loss Surgery

The Discussion: Is Obesity Environmental or Genetic?
Arguments for: Obesity is Environmental

1. Our food intake has increased rapidly over the years since the size of portions of food have increased massively over the years.

Portion sizes and type of food are modified to suit the varying needs, the www.MyPyramid.Gov of the USA Department of Agriculture offers personalised eating plans, assesses food choices, and provides advices.

 2. Eat Healthy Food
The Healthy Eating Pyramid from the Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health is based on latest scientific evidence. The Pyramid is a simple, reliable guide to choosing a healthy diet. Its foundation is daily exercise and weight control, since these two related elements strongly influence your chances of staying healthy.

3. Obesity and Depression May Be Linked

A major review on the correlation between obesity and depression has been carried out by Science Daily one of the most reputable scientific journals in the united states and is known internationally for its reliability, reveals that research indicates people who are obese may be more likely to become depressed, and people who are depressed may be more likely to become obese.
Researchers led by Sarah M. Markowitz, M.S., examined the data that suggests there is a connection between depression and obesity. The study found that people who are obese may be more likely to become depressed because they experience themselves as in poor health and are unhappy with the way they look. This occurrence was particularly common among women and those of high socio-economic status.
Research also indicated that people who are depressed may be more likely to become obese due to physiological changes in their hormonal and immune systems that occur during depression. They also have more difficulty taking good care of themselves because of symptoms and consequences of depression, such as lack of motivation for going out, feeling of isolation loneliness, binge eating resulting in the individual becoming obese.
Treatments such as exercise and stress reduction can help to manage both obesity and depression at the same time. Dieting can potentially worsen mood, and antidepressants, which can cause weight gain, should be minimized. “The treatment of depression and obesity should be integrated,” the authors conclude. “This way, healthcare providers are working together to treat both conditions, rather than each in isolation.” Said the scientific journal Science Daily . This study is published in the March 2008 issue of Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice.

4. Obesity and Environmental Factors that Contribute to Obesity

http://www.health.state.ri.us/disease/ihw/environmental.php
In addition to the individual behaviours that contribute to the obesity epidemic, environments also play a role. Refer to the following chart to see how the environment we live in affects our physical activity and nutrition.

                                                                                                                    PHYSICAL ACTIVITY NUTRITION
Sedentary Pastimes
Children now spend more time in front of a screen than they do in school. Televisions, computers, and video games require no physical activity. Fast food
People are eating at fast food restaurants more often, so they have less control over how much fat, sugar, and salt is in their food.
Transportation
People are walking and cycling less because driving is often the easiest option. Many people feel that it is too dangerous to walk or cycle and find it easier to use their car. Growing Portion Sizes
Portions sizes in restaurants and fast food establishments are growing. In the 1950’s, a standard size coke was 6.5 ounces. Now, it is 20 ounces. That means the size has tripled.
Technological Advances
Things like computers, escalators, cell phones, dishwashers and lifts all reduce the need for physical activity. Soda and Junk Food
Soda has increasingly replaced milk and water in children’s diets.
Jobs
Most people have relatively sedentary jobs. This, in combination with longer work hours, has made it difficult for many people to be active during the day. Unhealthy School Environments
School lunch programs often don’t have a wide enough selection of healthy eating options.
Safety
In many communities, people do not feel safe walking outside or letting their children play outside. Sidewalks may not be lit up at night or there may not be any sidewalks at all! Advertisements
Unhealthy foods and drinks are aggressively advertised and sold to adults and children. In the USA commercials can last up to 3 hours where in England its only 3 minutes.
Green Space
Some neighborhoods don’t have many areas to allow for outdoor activities, like parks and fields. Access to Healthy Foods
Many low-income families do not have access to healthy foods, which are often much more expensive than processed foods.
Access to Sport Facilities
. Physical inactivity is the result of not having many accessible sports facilities to help fuel a child’s passion for sport or to even help children play sport and keep healthy. Schools also have very little or out of date equipment for sports.

5. The Environment and Behavioural Aspects

According to recent scientific studies in the last the number of obese people have tripled. This is due to changes in lifestyle, particularly changes in the foods that are available and the amount of physical activity people do.Foods now taste better and are a lot cheaper especially processed foods. Portion sizes are getting bigger, usually at very little extra cost. For convenience, more people are eating pre-packaged food, fast food and soft drinks, which are often high in calories, fat, salt and sugar. And these types of food are heavily advertised, especially to children.

We are also living more inactive lifestyles. The use of cars and public transport over walking and cycling is increasing. Many jobs now involve sitting at a desk for several hours. And inactive pastimes, such as watching television and surfing the internet, are becoming more popular.Cancer Research UK believes that an environment that encourages healthy eating and physical activity is essential in order to tackle obesity resulting in reducing the number of chronic disease such as Cancer, Heart disease and Diabetes.

We cannot alter our genetic make-up and it is very difficult to control our environment. But we can learn how to control the lifestyle choices we make.Because our calorie balance is controlled by instinctive drives, short-term ‘quick fix’ solutions (including most diet programmes) eventually fail. Instead, we must make long-term lifestyle decisions including healthy eating and regular physical activity to reduce our risk of being obese.

Resulting in a reduced risk of cancer, heart disease, diabetes and several other major diseases. Even relatively small losses, such as 10% of our total weight, can have positive effects on our health.
To find out more about how you can make small lifestyle changes to maintain a healthy body weight, go to our Ten Top Tips section.

For: Obesity is Genetic

1. New Genetics & Obesity Link discovered by John Reilly & David Wilson

According to one of the latest scientific studies conducted by the BMJ (British Medical Journal) and MRC (Medical Research Council) scientists have located an FTO gene in a region of the brain called the Hypothalamus that controls the feeling of hunger and thirst. The FTO gene is said to be able to manipulate these feelings leading people to eat more and become obese.

A group of scientists working with Professor Chris Ponting from the MRC Functional Genetics Unit in Oxford and Prof Stephen O’Rahilly, University of Cambridge, have made a large breakthrough in understanding how the ‘obesity gene’ triggers weight gain in some individuals. The team was led by Prof Chris Schofield from the University of Oxford working along with the university of Cambridge and Cancer Research UK in London, have been studying FTO, a gene that was linked to obesity earlier this year. These findings could have implications for the future treatment of obesity as well as adult onset diabetes.

Researchers discovered that variations in the FTO gene influences people’s risk of becoming obese. It has also been said that the discovery of the FTO gene was of significant importance because the genetic variant in FTO that influences obesity is very common.

New findings suggest that about 50% of the UK carry a copy of the variant FTO. As a result they are on average 1.6 kilograms heaver than those who don’t have the variant of FTO, while 16 per cent of the population carries two copies of the variant and are on average three kilograms heavier. Carriers of the variant also have an increased risk of diabetes.

They also found that FTO is highly expressed in the region of the brain called the hypothalamus, which has important roles in the control of hunger and satiety and that, in certain parts of the hypothalamus, the levels of FTO are influenced by feeding and fasting.

“This is an astonishing finding. We never expected this first obesity gene to have such a direct effect on DNA”, said Professor Ponting.

2. Genetics plays a key role in obesity

The International Journal of Bioinformatics Research and Applications have published evidence proving that genetics plays a key role in obesity. The research corresponds to the genetics of modern Pima Indians who have an abnormally high rate of obesity. Their obesity is thought to be linked to a low metabolism that is very efficient allowing them to metabolize food more efficiently in times when little was available, although this causes problems when food is in abundance.

The researchers anticipated an effect consistent with higher metabolic efficiency among these people and focused specifically on recently discovered variations in their mitochondrial DNA, so-called SNPs, or single nucleotide polymorphisms.

The metabolic rates of 200 obese Pima individuals were measured and revealed that two of the three known SNPs influence metabolic efficiency. The researchers then used the genetics software, to analyze the biochemical changes and then tracked the evolutionary selection of these genetic variations in 107 different types of mammals.

The team suggests that an increased metabolic efficiency could have been an evolutionary advantage. This helped the Pima Indians survive the harsh dietary environment of the Sonora desert. In the current environment of caloric over-consumption an increased efficiency is unfavourable and may contribute to the high rates of obesity among the Pimas.

The researches say while the Pima Indians are an extreme case, the entire human population may also have evolved in a restricted caloric environment. Many populations may exhibit similar cases that were advantageous to our ancestors but may now be unfavourable. These cases such as the Pima Indians provide an explanation as to why obesity is so prevalent in the 21st century.

3. Major Genetic Study Identifies Clearest Link Yet to Obesity Link

Scientists identified the most clear genetic link yet to obesity in the general population as part of a major study of diseases funded by the Wellcome Trust, the UK’s largest medical research charity. People with two copies of a particular gene variant have a 70 per cent higher risk of being obese than those with no copies.

Scientists from the Peninsula Medical School, Exeter, and the University of Oxford first identified a genetic link to obesity through a genome-wide study of 2000 people with type 2 diabetes and 3000 controls. This study was part of the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, one of the biggest projects ever undertaken to identify the genetic variations that may predispose people to or protect them from major diseases. Through this genome-wide study, the researchers identified a strong association between an increase in BMI and a variation, or ‘allele’, of the gene FTO. Their findings are published online today in the journal ‘Science’.

The researchers then tested a further 37 000 samples for this gene from Bristol, Dundee and Exeter as well as a number of other regions in the UK and Finland.

The study found that people carrying one copy of the FTO allele have a 30 per cent increased risk of being obese compared to a person with no copies. However, a person carrying two copies of the FTO allele has a 70 per cent increased risk of being obese, becoming on average 3 kg heavier than a similar person with no copies.

The FTO gene was first discovered whilst studying the DNA of a group of patients with type 2 diabetes. The risk of developing type 2 diabetes increases significantly for obese people. Through its effect on BMI, having one copy of the FTO allele increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes by 25%, having two by 50%.

“As a nation, we are eating more but doing less exercise, and so the average weight is increasing, but within the population some people seem to put on more weight than others,” explains Professor Andrew Hattersley from the Peninsula Medical School. “Our findings suggest a possible answer to someone who might ask ‘I eat the same and do as much exercise as my friend next door, so why am I fatter?’ There is clearly a component to obesity that is genetic.”

Conclusion

Obesity is one the fastest growing diseases and is quickly becoming a serious epidemic across the world. Obesity will cause an economic meltdown as it puts a major strain on national health services as it encourages the growth of chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes and heart disease to a point where the quality of life will plummet more than ever before.

Therefore it is essential to identify the root cause of obesity in order to stop this growing epidemic. Although obesity can be triggered by a variety of factors and each change caused by these factors affects every individual differently. However obesity is caused by two main factors Genetics and the Environment the question is which one. Is our fate predetermined when we are born is it genetics that makes the decision? Do our genes decide our destiny, is it a case of once born fat you will remain fat? Or is the environment we live in crippling our health? Has the over consumption of processed food, the long periods of physical inactivity and our evolving sedentary lifestyle caught up with us?

According to many studies, the environment has been the root cause of obesity for many years. Many environmentalists and health care professionals suggest that as we enter a generation of technological advancements many basic tasks do no longer require physical activity and foods have higher levels of salt, sugar and fat than ever before we are going to continue to become obese at alarming rates unless, certain aspects of our environment are quickly changed.

Although ground breaking research suggests that genetics plays a big part in obesity. Scientists have located a gene called the FTO gene which can manipulate certain feelings such as hunger and thirst, which can cause obesity since an individual is not fully aware when he is full or no longer thirsty. This may provide an answer for those individuals who exercise more moderately and eat healthier than the majority but find it harder to loose weight.

Despite the promising results scientists have admitted they have yet to figure out how exactly this FTO gene works and whether genetics are solely responsible for an increase in weight. Therefore it is fair to say that the environment is the root cause for obesity at this stage between the two factors.

However I believe that it is a mixture between genetics and the environment and this will become more apparent as the research into genetics becomes more evident and we learn how to appreciate how the two factors affect each other.

Appendix

1) http://conservativehome.blogs.com/torydiary/images/obesity.gif
2) http://www.who.int/topics/obesity/en/ (World Health Organisation)
3) http://sitemaker.umich.edu/russette.356/comorbidities (The University of Michigan)
4) http://www.prohealthblog.com/images/stories/rising_childhood_obesity.gif
5) A.D.A.M., Inc. is accredited by URAC, also known as the American Accreditation HealthCare Commission (www.urac.org)
6) . National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Web site. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_home.htm
7) http://www.forthealthcare.com/media/images/obesity-table.gif
http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/bmi-comparison.gif
9) http://www.thelapband.com/index.aspx Courtesy of North West Weight lose Surgery
10) Image from the Food Standards Agency Website www.food.gov.uk
11) www.MyPyramid.Gov
12) http://www.fda.gov/diabetes/pyramid.gif
13) http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html (Harvard University)
14) http://www.health.state.ri.us/disease/ihw/environmental.php
15) http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080602152913.htm
16) http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/healthyliving/obesityandweight/whatcausesobesity/ (Cancer research UK)
17) http://bmj.com/cgi/content/full/333/7580/1207 (British Medical Journal)
18) http://www.physorg.com/news111753965.html
19) http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/News/Media-office/Press-releases/2007/WTX036897.htm (The Wellcome Trust)

Scientists Create ‘Artificial Human Sperm’

As move further into the 21st century exploring the endless possibilities of genetics, we become more inquisitive as we observe scientists break boundaries going from one extreme to the next. This code of life called DNA has been the magnet of public interest as well as the pinnacle for medical advancements.

A recent advancement has been creating human sperm from stem cells (unspecialized cells). This means that in a short period of time scientists could be growing sperm in a lab just using embryonic stem cells. The team of researchers behind this astonishing was lead by Professor Karim Nayernia who described his new creation as “fully mature, functional”.

The scientific Theory

This is a brief summary of the science behind the concept of stem cells driving this new advancement.

What is a stem cell?

A stem cell is the term for a specialised cell. An unspecialised cell is a cell that does not have a particular process which it means it has the ability to grow into anything.

Stem cells are usually found in an embryo this is the developing human offspring inside the womb. An embryo is a fertilised egg which continues to divide as the weeks progress. At the 16th cell stage the cells begin to become specialised creating organs for the foetus to develop.

Scientists harvest stem cells at the 8 cell stage before the cells become specialised. This allows them to develop any kind of cell in the body they wish.

What are the possible uses of stem cells?

•    Making new brain cells to treat people with Parkinson’s disease
•   Rebuilding bones and cartilage
•  Repairing damaged immune systems
•  Making replacement heart valves
•  Stem cells can also be used in Therapeutic Cloning

Benefits of Carrying Out This Particular Research

This is an important development as it will allow researchers to study in detail how sperm forms and lead to a better understanding of infertility in men – why it happens and what is causing it.

Dr Karim commented on the Research by saying the following:

“If we have a better understanding of what’s going on it could lead to new ways of treating infertility.”

“This understanding could help us develop new ways to help couples suffering infertility so they can have a child which is genetically their own.”

“It will also allow scientists to study how cells involved in reproduction are affected by toxins, for example why young boys with leukaemia who undergo chemotherapy can become infertile for life – and possibly lead us to a solution.”

Professor Azim Surani, a specialist in physiology and reproduction at the University of Cambridge, said the cells should be tested to find out how they develop inside an animal egg and added: “These sperm-like cells made in a dish from embryonic stem cells are a long way from being authentic sperm cells.”

•  Despite the many plausible benefits this research holds there will always be an ethical dilemma when creating something natural like sperm. This raises a few questions:
•  Are we playing the role of God by creating something that occurs in the body naturally?
•  Is it our right to determine the use of embryos something that could potentially be made to create human life?
•  Could this research tip the balance between treating the infertile and filling the enormous ego of your typical alpha male? Could this be used as a supplement for sperm given to those who are not necessarily low in sperm?

 Let me know what you think in the comments below.

 By Mohammed Hasan